GENOMIC CODE CRACKING - ATOMIC LEVEL GENE DECODING RESULTS
Hi... Today we seen some information regarding genomic code cracking that is atomic level gene decoding results that is revealed.Freinds Dr. Paul F. Agris, professor of biochemistry at NC State, and academic colleagues from England and Poland show clear evidence for 1966 “Wobble Hypothesis” offered by Francis Crick who was the co-founder of the DNA molecule and its double-helix structure, and Dr. Agris’ own “Modified Wobble Hypothesis” posed in 1991.
The scientists used x-ray crystallography of the cell’s protein-manufacturing unit, the ribosome, to provide a visual snapshot of the decoding process.
This research is published in the December 2004 edition of Nature Structural and Molecular Biology.
The Wobble Hypothesis was Crick’s attempt to make sense of how the cell decodes the genetic information of DNA – the molecule that constitutes all the genetic information in a cell – and then, from that information the biologically active proteins comes to an existence, Dr. Agris results.
The term DNA has 61 three-letter codes that are translated by transfer RNA (tRNA) into amino acids; also proteins are made of amino acids. But the facts is that there are only 20 natural amino acids. Squaring the disparity between the number of codes and the number of amino acids – there are three times as many codes as there are amino acids – became a hurdle for Crick and other early geneticists, Dr. Agris explanation.
Also Crick attempted to clear this hurdle with the Wobble Hypothesis. He based this theory on the first report of a tRNA molecule’s chemical structure discovered by Robert Holley in 1963. Normally, RNA molecules are composed of four nucleosides: adenosine, guanosine, cytosine and uridine (A,G,C,U). But the tRNA molecule which Holley studied included a modified nucleoside called inosine (I), Dr. Agris says. By seeing this inosine in an important area of the tRNA molecule – an area that read the three-letter DNA codes when the cell synthesizes proteins – led Crick to believe that a single tRNA used inosine to read more than one code, and that therefore the 61 codes were decoded by fewer than 61 tRNAs.
Example, Dr. Agris used the amino acid alanine, which has four codes. Crick’s hypothesis would allow that only the two tRNA molecules could be capable to decode all four alanine codes.By using the modified nucleoside I in place of A, G, C or U, one tRNA may be able to read three codes, effectively “wobbling” the reading.
Twenty-five years after the Wobble Hypothesis, Dr. Agris proposed his Modified Wobble Hypothesis. It stated that modified nucleosides other than inosine would in some cases expand tRNAs ability to translate codes by wobbling to greater numbers of three-letter codes, whereas other modified nucleosides would restrict the wobble to only one or two codes.
According to the recent paper,Dr. Agris and colleagues already proved that Agris’ alteration to Crick’s hypothesis was correct: Cellular modification of tRNA alters chemistry and also structure in a manner critical for tRNA to decode more than one three-letter code.
And by using atomic-level resolution – in which researchers can distinguish atom from atom – and working with a tRNA specific for the amino acid lysine,Dr. Agris and his colleagues show modified nucleosides enabling tRNA to decode genomic information on the ribosome, the cell’s protein synthesis machinery.
Thus Specifically, it shows modifications enabling the decoding of two codes. One modification acts like a platform on which decoding takes place, and the other allows a novel chemical and physical interaction to occur between tRNA and the code,Dr. Agris said.
“This is the first visualization that modifications are critical for decoding the genome through wobble,” Said by Dr. Agris.
Dr. Agris says that 15 to 20 percent of tRNAs in all organisms require modified chemistries in order for codes to be properly read and protein synthesis to be successful.
“An understanding of how modified nucleosides enable and improve wobble recognition of the three-letter codes for protein synthesis opens the possibility of using modified nucleosides to expand the cells’ use of tRNA to make new proteins, or in new ways to target the protein synthesis machinery in pathogens,” Said by Dr. Agris.
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Messenger RNA Synthesis
During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference, however, is that prokaryotic RNA polymerase associates with mRNA processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed quickly after the start of transcription. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed, product is termed pre-mRNA; once completely processed, it is termed mature mRNA.
Messenger ribonucleic acid, commonly called messenger RNA or mRNA, is an RNA molecule that encodes a chemical "blueprint" for the synthesis of a protein. Messenger RNA contains a copy of the genetic data contained on a strand of DNA. Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (ribosomal RNA or rRNA) helps to form the ribosome itself.
Same like messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA does not transmit genetic information. Instead of this it combines with proteins to create a structure that systematically transforms mRNA into proteins.
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WHAT IS RIBOSOMAL RNA (RRNA) ????
There are 4 kinds. In eukaryotes, these are
18S rRNA. One of these molecules, forth with some 30 altered protein molecules, is acclimated to accomplish the baby subunit of the ribosome.
28S, 5.8S, and 5S rRNA. One anniversary of these molecules, forth with some 45 altered proteins, are acclimated to accomplish the ample subunit of the ribosome.
The S cardinal accustomed anniversary blazon of rRNA reflects the amount at which the molecules debris in the ultracentrifuge. The beyond the number, the beyond the atom (but not proportionally).
The 28S, 18S, and 5.8S molecules are produced by the processing of a distinct primary archetype from a array of identical copies of a distinct gene. The 5S molecules are produced from a altered array of identical genes.
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DNA GENE DECODING SITES
While these adaptation sites accommodate the befalling for DNA Acceptance Networking, that seems to be a by-product of their capital function, which is to break your DNA. For the acceptance world, casework like this accept amazing implications, including:
(i) In the majority of adoptions in the world, there is little or no advice about the bearing father. This includes calm adoptions, as able-bodied as adoptions from added genitalia of the world. Adaptation your child's DNA will accommodate you with cogent advice about the bearing ancestor and the bearing mother. The websites affirmation they acquiesce you to attending 20 or 40 years into the approaching at cogent DNA markers that will affect your child's bloom (such as pre-disposition to assertive diseases).
(ii) Once registered with some sites, you will be automatically brash over the abutting 10, 20 or 30 years, as medical science makes new discoveries and advances.
(iii) In some situations DNA adaptation may become accessible as allotment of pre-adoption medical and amusing advice about the child. Currently, parents accept bound medical information, photographs, and sometimes a video. Perhaps in the approaching a DNA besom will become allotment of this pre-adoption advice package.
(iv) As countries become added careful about whom may accept their accouchement (such as China) will they demand DNA tests of the adopting parents? Adopting Parents already accept to accumulation medical and lab letters as allotment of a abstracts for all-embracing adoption. Are DNA letters next?
These websites will accompany abundant opportunities, but additionally abundant quandaries. We will no best accept the botheration of not knowing, but instead accept the accountability of whether we demand to apperceive in the aboriginal place. We will apperceive whether our accouchement are agreeable to assertive ancestry or talents, athletics, music or languages, and we'll animate them to accompany assertive paths. I accept afresh declared these websites to clients, accompany and relatives. It is absorbing how abounding bodies accept said, "But do you absolutely demand to apperceive this information?". Clearly, some bodies would rather not apperceive and aloof let the approaching unfold.
This is a web-based account that helps you accept your DNA. Send in a sample of your child's saliva and see how the decoded genes announce your child's future. This armpit is partly adjourned by Google. The amount for a DNA assay is $999, and you will accept a address allegory about 600,000 DNA checkpoints.
At this time their account is alone accessible in the USA, Europe and Canada, although it will aggrandize in the approaching to added countries. In acknowledgment to my catechism to this armpit as to whether adopting parents could use it to accept the DNA decoded for a adolescent proposed to them for adoption, the acknowledgment was "Our account is not advised to be acclimated for abiogenetic screening purposes."
Doug Chalke
Executive Director
Sunrise Family Services Society
Vancouver, February, 2008
www.SunriseAdoption.com
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WHO CAN USE DNA ADOPTION
(i) Biological parents who placed a adolescent for acceptance (or conceivably alone a child) can attending for their adolescent common with one registration.
(ii) Aback adopted accouchement become teenagers or adolescent adults, they generally demand to acquisition out added about their roots. While they may not acquisition their bearing parents immediately, they may locate added relatives. In adjustment to analyze siblings, half-siblings, cousins or grandparents, it will be all-important for one of their biological parents to annals on the armpit (At this time you charge a ancestor to additionally annals in adjustment to say definitively that two ancestors are siblings). Those ancestors may about-face up anon or a decade or two afterwards as new ancestors annals on the site.
(iii) Adopted Adults. Life is long, and at some point aback adopted accouchement accept become adults, they frequently demand to attending for their roots. While adoptive parents today usually explain to their accouchement that they were adopted, that has not consistently been the case, nor is it universally true. As a result, individuals registering on these sites, who had no abstraction that they were adopted, may be in for a surprise.
(iv) Adoptive parents who demand to acquisition siblings, bearing parents, or added ancestors of their adopted adolescent can annals their child. Parents registering accouchement over 13 crave the child's acceding to do this. In fact, it appears that analytical adopted teenagers could acceptable annals themselves if they accept admission to $149.
(v) Acceptance Agencies may demand to accommodate advice about DNA Acceptance Networking in their acceptance apprenticeship programs. It's a absoluteness analysis for parents who accompaniment they demand to adopt, but never demand annihilation to do with the bearing ancestors and that's why they demand to accept overseas. At some point their adolescent may annals and acquisition ancestors in added countries.
Not anybody complex in acceptance will demand to participate in this common agreement in affiliated research. While best adopted accouchement demand to apperceive who their biological parents are, this is not consistently true. However, for those who do demand to apperceive area their adolescent is, or who their biological ancestor is, these websites are already bearing after-effects and matches. An ABC News video clip, which is accessed by a articulation on the GeneTree.com home page, includes an account with an adopted developed who alone knew his bearing date and place, and afterwards begin ancestors in several genitalia of the world.
Since DNA Acceptance Networking will about accommodate a common acceptance alliance registry, bodies should anticipate anxiously afore registering. While anyone can use one of these sites, appropriate precautions charge to be taken aback they are acclimated by the acceptance community. Some individuals may ambition to access counselling afore registering. Acceptance Alliance Registries are amid in best jurisdictions in North America and they frequently accommodate counselling to the parties both afore and afterwards a reunion.
What makes these sites so altered from the sites declared abutting is that no abiogenetic advice is accustomed aback to you (the participant).
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WHAT IS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ????
Hi This is all about protein synthesis.........
Protein amalgam is the action by which alone beef assemble proteins. Both deoxyribonucleic acerbic (DNA) and all types of ribonucleic acerbic (RNA) are complex in this process. Enzymes in the cell's basis activate the action of protein amalgam by unwinding the bare breadth of DNA, so that RNA can be made. The RNA forms as a archetype of one ancillary of the DNA strand, and is beatific to added areas of the corpuscle to aid in the bringing calm of altered amino acids that anatomy proteins. Protein amalgam is so alleged because proteins are "synthesized" through automated and actinic processes in the cell.
Once the fiber of RNA has been fabricated in the nucleus, it is alleged agent RNA (mRNA). The mRNA exits the basis through tiny openings alleged nuclear pores, and moves into the beyond breadth of the cell, accepted as the cytoplasm. Once it exits the nucleus, the mRNA is fatigued against a anatomy accepted as a ribosome, which serves as the cell's assignment base for protein synthesis. At this point, alone one sub-unit of the ribosome is present.
As the mRNA binds to the ribosome sub-unit, it triggers the access of addition fiber of RNA, alleged alteration RNA (tRNA). The tRNA fiber looks for the able abode to bind to the mRNA, and back it finds it, it attaches to the mRNA, while captivation an amino acerbic on one end. Back this occurs, the added sub-unit of the ribosome arrives to anatomy a complete structure. As the ribosome surrounds the strands of RNA, addition fiber of tRNA approaches. This fiber is accustomed addition amino acid, and is altered from the first. Again, the tRNA looks for the able abode to bind to the mRNA.
When the additional fiber of tRNA is in abode with its amino acid, the two amino acids bind calm with advice from the ribosome, as able-bodied as cellular activity in the anatomy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This arrangement repeats itself, and the alternation of amino acids grows longer. Back the amino acids accept all been placed in the actual sequence, the alternation folds into a three-dimensional shape. Back this has occurred, the protein is complete.
Once the protein has been auspiciously made, the two sub-units of the ribosome separate, to be abutting afresh for after use. The action of protein amalgam takes abode in abundant ribosomes throughout the cell. A corpuscle which is operating calmly can amalgamate hundreds of proteins every second.
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CANCER DUE TO RADIATION EFFECTS ON DNA
Large doses of radiation to ample numbers of bodies are bare in adjustment to account assessable increases in the cardinal of cancers and appropriately actuate the differences in the acuteness of altered organs to radiation. Because the cancers can action anytime in the apparent person's lifetime, these studies can booty seventy years or added to complete. For example, the better and scientifically best admired epidemiologic abstraction of radiation furnishings has been the advancing abstraction of the Japanese diminutive bomb survivors. Added important studies accommodate studies of ample groups apparent to radiation as a aftereffect of their activity (such as uranium miners) or as a aftereffect of medical treatment. These types of studies are discussed in greater detail in the area blue-blooded "How Do Scientists Actuate the Long-Term Risks from Radiation?"
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HOW LONG DOES RADIATION AFFECTS THE DNA????
HI....TO THIS WE KNOW THAT FOR HOW LONG THE RADIATION HAVE ITS EFFECTS ON DNA.
The aftereffect of the radiation may not be to annihilate the cell, but to adapt its DNA cipher in a way that leaves the corpuscle animate but with an absurdity in the DNA blueprint. The aftereffect of this alteration will depend on the attributes of the absurdity and back it is read. Since this is a accidental process, such furnishings are now alleged stochastic.[100] Two important academic furnishings of radiation are cancer, which after-effects from mutations in nongerm beef (termed actual cells), and ancestral changes, which aftereffect from mutations in antibody beef (eggs and sperm).
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RADIATION EFFECTS ON DNA DUE TO EFFECT OF IONIZING RADIATION AND CADMIUM
Ionizing radiation, by definition, "ionizes," that is, it pushes an electron out of its apogee about an diminutive nucleus, causing the accumulation of electrical accuse on atoms or molecules. If this electron comes from the DNA itself or from a adjoining atom and anon strikes and disrupts the DNA molecule, the aftereffect is alleged absolute action. This antecedent ionization takes abode actual quickly, in about 0.000000000000001 of a second. However, today it is estimated that about two-thirds of the accident acquired by x application is due to aberrant action. This occurs back the absolved electron does not anon bang the DNA, but instead strikes an accustomed baptize molecule. This ionizes the baptize molecule, eventually bearing what is accepted as a chargeless radical. A chargeless abolitionist reacts actual acerb with added molecules as it seeks to restore a abiding agreement of electrons. A chargeless abolitionist may alluvion about up to 10,000,000,000 times best than the time bare for the antecedent ionization (this is still a actual abbreviate time, about 0.00001 of a second), accretion the adventitious of it abolition the acute DNA molecule. This additionally increases the achievability that added substances could be alien that would abrogate chargeless radicals afore they do damage.
Neutrons act absolutely differently. A fast neutron will bypass orbiting electrons and occasionally blast anon into an diminutive nucleus, animadversion out ample particles such as alpha particles, protons, or beyond bits of the nucleus. The best accepted collisions are with carbon or oxygen nuclei. The particles created will themselves again set about ionizing adjacent electrons. A apathetic neutron will not accept the activity to beating out ample particles back it strikes a nucleus. Instead, the neutron and the basis will animation off anniversary other, like billiard balls. In so doing, the neutron will apathetic down, and the basis will accretion speed. The best accepted blow is with a hydrogen nucleus, a proton that can accelerate or ionize electrons in adjacent atoms.
Effect of cadmium administration (3 mg CdCl2/kg body weight i.p.) and/or whole-body
irradiation (3 Gy of gamma rays) on the rat brain was studied in the course of 21 d after
treatment. The effect was studied on the basis of quantitative analyses of DNA and RNA. It was
found that the changes of nucleic acids in the brain hemispheres were very slight and they lay in
a temporal decrease in DNA content on the 7th – 14th d after the irradiation alone and in
combination with cadmium (CdCl2 administered 30 min before irradiation). In the cerebellum,
the changes of nucleic acids were more profound than in the hemispheres. The decrease in DNA
content in the cerebellum was also only temporal and it occurred on the 1st d after the irradiation
alone. The most interesting finding seems to be the increase in DNA content in the cerebellum in
a later period after the irradiation alone and in combination with cadmium without concomitant
increase in RNA content. This finding suggests increasing number of cells with high
nucleoplasmic ratio (mainly glial elements) in the rat cerebellum in a later period after
irradiation. In general, effect of cadmium administration on the rat brain was less expressed than
effect of irradiation and combination of the two treatments did not induce any summation effect.
Key words: rat, brain, cadmium, gamma radiation, DNA, RNA.
Cadmium is a highly toxic heavy metal with half-life time of about 10 years in
human beings. It accumulates predominantly in the kidneys as well as in liver, which
are the critical target organs (2, 19). Biological role of cadmium in an animal organism
is unknown (9). It is designated as a carcinogen in humans and rodents (20, 23).
However, the concentrations of Cd required to induce overt DNA damage are usually
very high (4, 5, 16). The damage of nucleic acids is due to direct or indirect effects of
cadmium (7). Cadmium induces, for example, an oxidative DNA damage leading to
DNA strand-breaks, DNA-protein cross-linking and inhibition of DNA repair.
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The effects of ionizing radiation on DNA have been studied in detail for many
years (3, 6, 10, 15, 18, 11, 24). A lot of physical-chemical changes of DNA (e.g.
chemical changes of bases, breaks of phosphodiester bonds in one or both chains of
DNA) were found. Similarly to cadmium, these changes were caused by a direct or
indirect (mediated by reactive free radicals) effects of radiation. In the proliferatively
active tissues, such as haemopoietic and lymphoid tissues and regenerating liver, the
most striking effects of ionizing irradiation include inhibition of DNA synthesis and
mitosis and increase in the number of chromosome abnormalities. Due to the lack of
literature data concerning the influence of cadmium and ionizing radiation on nonproliferating
mammalian tissues, the cytotoxic effects of cadmium and gamma
radiation (alone or in combination) on the rat brain were studied in this model
experiment. The effects were evaluated on the basis of quantitative changes of DNA
and RNA because they can serve as an integral index of damage and recovery of cells
after the insults.
Material and Methods
The experiments were performed on 80 male rats of the SD strain (Anlab
Praha, Czech Republic). The animals were 6 weeks old at the beginning of the
experiments. They were kept under standard vivarium conditions (temperature 22 -
24°C, natural light rhythm), and had access to food and water ad libitum. The animals
were divided into four groups:
- non-treated control rats (C)
- rats treated with cadmium (Cd)
- rats irradiated with gamma rays (Ir)
- rats treated with cadmium 30 min before irradiation (Cd+Ir).
In this experiment, all animals survived. In the previous experiments, by the
use of the same doses of cadmium and ionizing radiation, but realised on younger rats
and in another year season, mortality of 5-10 % of animals was recorded.
Cadmium administration. Cadmium (CdCl2, Lachema Brno, Czech
Republic) was administered i. p. in the dose of 3 mg/kg alone or 30 min before
irradiation (groups Cd and Cd+Ir, respectively).
Irradiation. Animals were whole-body irradiated with the dose of 3 Gy by
gamma rays from a 60Co source (Chisostat Chirana, Czech Republic) at a dose rate of
0.150 Gy.min-1 (groups Ir and Ir+Cd). Doses of cadmium and gamma radiation were
chosen from the wide range of doses on the basis of the results of preliminary
experiments. They appeared to be the highest tolerable doses (as to the survival of rats)
inducing clearly demonstrable biochemical changes in the rat brain.
Determination of RNA and DNA. The animals (6 in each group) were
sacrificed 1, 7, 14 and 21 d after treatment. The brain was immediately excised in toto
and weighed. It was divided into the hemispheres and cerebellum (without truncus
cerebri), because distinct findings were expected due to some differences in structure
and function of these main parts of the brain. RNA and DNA determinations were
carried out according to the method of Tsanev and Markov (22). Tissue samples (in
duplicates) were homogenized in 5% trichloracetic acid solution and then deproteinized
and purified by washing with methanol, chloroform-methanol, benzene and ether. The
separation of RNA and DNA was carried out by consecutive hydrolyses in alkaline
129
(1 M KOH) and acid (0.2 M HClO4) solutions, respectively. The concentration of RNA
and DNA in the hydrolysates was determined by spectrophotometric measurements
(Hitachi, Tokio, Japan) at two wavelengths (RNA at 260 and 286 nm and DNA at 268
and 284 nm).
Statistical analysis. The experimental data were statistically evaluated by
Peritz´ F-test (12) at P≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.01 level of significance and they are given as
mean ± S.E.M .
Results
Hemispheres. No significant changes in RNA concentration and total content
were found in the hemispheres of rats exposed to cadmium and/or radiation comparing
to the control rats (Fig. 1). The decrease in DNA concentration in experimental rats
was not statistically significant (Fig. 2). The mean values of total DNA content
decreased after gamma irradiation (Ir) on the 7th d and after combined treatment with
cadmium and gamma irradiation (Cd+Ir) also on the 14th d of the treatment. Changes in
concentration and total content of DNA in experimental rats (Ir and Cd+Ir) were timedependent.
The application of cadmium alone did not cause any significant changes in
DNA in the rat hemispheres. As presented in Table 1, after cadmium administration or
irradiation alone (Cd, Ir) there was a tendency to some increase in the weight of rat
hemispheres. The effect of combined cadmium and radiation treatment (Cd+Ir) on the
weight of hemispheres was rather opposite.
Cerebellum. Cadmium and radiation alone or in the combination (Cd, Ir and
Cd+Ir) induced marked changes in the concentration of RNA in the cerebellum of rats.
As it follows from Fig. 3, statistically significant decrease in RNA concentration in
comparison to control rats was observed after 21 d of treatment. However, decrease in
RNA concentration was not accompanied by adequate decrease in total RNA content in
the organ. The concentration and content of DNA in the cerebellum (Fig. 4)
significantly decreased only 1 d after irradiation (Ir). Later, however, increase in DNA
concentration and especially in DNA content was found in the cerebellum of irradiated
rats of the groups Ir and Cd+Ir. After all treatments (Cd, Ir and Cd+Ir), marked
enhancement of the cerebellum weight was observed mainly in later stages of the
examination
Discussion
The results of the present study indicated that the quantitative changes of RNA
in the brain hemispheres and cerebellum of cadmium treated and/or gamma-irradiated
rats were less expressed than changes of DNA.
In the hemispheres, no quantitative changes of RNA occurred; changes of
DNA manifested themselves in a temporary decrease in total content of DNA in
irradiated rats of the groups Ir and Cd+Ir. We suppose that in both groups, the decrease
in DNA content on the 7th d was caused mainly by irradiation; additional cadmium
administration (Cd+Ir) resulted in extension of the decrease till the 14th d. The DNA
content is considered to be the best biochemical index of cellularity (1), hence, these
results indicate some loss of cells due to apoptosis. Apoptosis of cells is connected with
fragmentation of DNA and following loss of DNA. It seems, therefore, that effects of
irradiation alone and in combination with cadmium imitate process of cell senescence
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WHAT IS RNA ????
RNA is primarily fabricated up of four altered bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. The aboriginal three are the aforementioned as those begin in DNA, but uracil replaces thymine as the abject commutual to adenine
RNA is the all-encompassing appellation for polynucleotides, agnate to DNA but absolute ribose in abode of deoxyribose and uracil in abode of thymine. These molecules are complex in the alteration of advice from DNA, programming protein amalgam and advancement ribosome structure. The 4 capital types of RNA are amalgamate nuclear RNA (hRNA), agent RNA (mRNA), alteration RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
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